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研究生教育已經(jīng)過時(shí)?

研究生教育已經(jīng)過時(shí)?

Leonard Cassuto 2015年09月05日
現(xiàn)如今,許多高校的研究生院其實(shí)是讓學(xué)生為他們可能永遠(yuǎn)得不到的工作做準(zhǔn)備。大多數(shù)博士研究生均懷揣著在一所研究性大學(xué)獲得一份終身職位的夢想,但最終實(shí)現(xiàn)這一夢想的可能性不足50%。種種問題的根源在于,研究生院的教學(xué)水平低下,無法與時(shí)俱進(jìn)。而研究生教育的失敗也在挑戰(zhàn)整個(gè)高等教育的意義。

????伍德羅?威爾遜國家獎(jiǎng)學(xué)金基金會的負(fù)責(zé)人亞瑟?萊文,多年來一直在強(qiáng)硬地批評師范教育項(xiàng)目。最近,他宣布正在與麻省理工學(xué)院合作啟動(dòng)一個(gè)新的師范教育研究生學(xué)位課程,這再次引起了人們對這些師范教育課程和整個(gè)教師培訓(xùn)領(lǐng)域的關(guān)注。

????萊文對師范學(xué)院的指責(zé)并非無的放矢。師范教育目前處于嚴(yán)重的無序狀態(tài)。教育專業(yè)碩士學(xué)位是美國公立學(xué)校的教師任職資格證書,但各大院校對這項(xiàng)學(xué)位有著不同的要求和標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。而這種差異正在影響著整個(gè)K-12教育系統(tǒng)(譯者注:K-12指從幼兒園到12年級)。

????毫無疑問,教育學(xué)院確實(shí)面臨許多特殊的挑戰(zhàn)。自1990年以來,美國授予的教育專業(yè)碩士學(xué)位增加了一倍以上,由此使得人們更加關(guān)注該學(xué)位存在的問題。

????但這些擔(dān)憂也吸引人們?nèi)リP(guān)注一個(gè)整個(gè)研究生教育的問題。

????研究生學(xué)院的問題并不新鮮。簡要回顧一下教育學(xué)院博士學(xué)位的歷史,便可以看出相關(guān)問題存在已久。

????1893年,哥倫比亞大學(xué)師范學(xué)院授予了第一個(gè)教育學(xué)博士學(xué)位。1920年,哈佛大學(xué)率先開始頒發(fā)一種新學(xué)位——教育博士學(xué)位。教育學(xué)博士學(xué)位是一種學(xué)者學(xué)位,而教育博士學(xué)位則屬于從業(yè)者資格認(rèn)證。

????從最開始,這兩個(gè)學(xué)位便很難區(qū)分。教育學(xué)位課程往往要求研究工作——包括一篇畢業(yè)論文,這與博士學(xué)位課程的要求類似,但其他要求較少。

????截至1983年,美國共有167所高校授予這兩種學(xué)位。清楚兩種學(xué)位區(qū)別的人,看不起教育博士學(xué)位。不久前,擔(dān)任卡耐基教育促進(jìn)基金會主席的李?S?舒爾曼,將教育博士學(xué)位稱為“博士學(xué)位精簡版”。

????2007年.一項(xiàng)旨在重新改造教育博士學(xué)位的倡議發(fā)現(xiàn),對于教育博士學(xué)位和教育學(xué)博士學(xué)位的相似性,教育工作者也有同樣的不滿。一位教育工作者表示,我們需要“投入時(shí)間,認(rèn)真研究兩者的區(qū)別。”兩者真正的區(qū)別僅僅是,教育博士學(xué)位被普遍認(rèn)為重要性和價(jià)值更低。

????這種批評逐漸貶低了教育博士學(xué)位的地位。2012年,哈佛大學(xué)停止授予該學(xué)位,而此前已經(jīng)有其他院校放棄了這一學(xué)位。如今,只有少數(shù)高校仍在頒發(fā)教育博士學(xué)位。

????教育博士學(xué)位的故事,是規(guī)劃不利的結(jié)果,但歸根結(jié)底,原因在于教學(xué)水平低下。但在研究生教育中,這種計(jì)劃失當(dāng),執(zhí)行不力的情況,可不僅僅限于師范學(xué)院。

????人文科學(xué)專業(yè)的研究生課程也深受教學(xué)水平低下的折磨——其所造成的結(jié)果,也在挑戰(zhàn)整個(gè)高等教育的意義。

????我的新書《研究生院的混亂》中描述了教學(xué)水平低下的影響如何蔓延到研究生教育之外。

????我所說的教學(xué)水平低下,并不僅限于課堂教育。研究生的學(xué)習(xí)途徑不外乎實(shí)驗(yàn)室、本科教學(xué)和自學(xué)。但他們需要指導(dǎo)。而他們獲得指導(dǎo)的唯一途徑,便是設(shè)計(jì)合理,既能滿足研究生的需求,又能幫助他們實(shí)現(xiàn)目標(biāo)的研究生課程。

????但目前,美國的研究生學(xué)院無法滿足學(xué)生的需求。原因如下:

????所有專業(yè)的博士學(xué)位均需要太長的時(shí)間。(人文科學(xué)專業(yè)需要9年)。標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的研究生課程旨在幫助研究生做好在研究型大學(xué)求職的準(zhǔn)備, 而在研究型大學(xué),教學(xué)負(fù)擔(dān)很輕,學(xué)校對教授的期望據(jù)說是專注于發(fā)表論文,而不是教學(xué)。

????事實(shí)上,大多數(shù)博士生無法得到這些理想的工作。美國大多數(shù)教授職位所在的高校,均有更高的課業(yè)負(fù)擔(dān),并且學(xué)校希望教授們將更多的精力投入到教學(xué)當(dāng)中。

????然而,多數(shù)研究生課程仍未調(diào)整其教學(xué)方式,以應(yīng)對這樣的現(xiàn)實(shí)。他們的教育,最終變成了使研究生們?yōu)榇蠖鄶?shù)人不可能得到的工作做準(zhǔn)備。

????經(jīng)過多年努力終于獲得博士學(xué)位的人,均懷揣著獲得一份終身職位的夢想,但最終實(shí)現(xiàn)這一夢想的可能性不足50%,盡管不同專業(yè)的結(jié)果會有所差異。

????教學(xué)密集型工作在數(shù)量上超過研究型工作。因此,未能獲得教授職位的人形成了一個(gè)龐大的、憤怒的、充滿怨恨的助教群體,在許多公立大學(xué),這個(gè)群體的工資水平墊底已經(jīng)成為必然。

????從本質(zhì)上而言,這些彼此關(guān)聯(lián)的問題就是研究生教育徹底失敗的明證。

????多項(xiàng)研究發(fā)現(xiàn),人文科學(xué)專業(yè)的研究生,對他們所學(xué)專業(yè)的價(jià)值與目的充滿困惑。他們清楚學(xué)術(shù)性工作市場的競爭是多么激烈,他們感覺自己并沒有做好成功的準(zhǔn)備。

????甚至對于非學(xué)術(shù)類工作,學(xué)生們也感覺并未做好準(zhǔn)備,因?yàn)槿宋目茖W(xué)專業(yè)的研究生課程專注于復(fù)制:研究型大學(xué)的教授們通常會使學(xué)生們變成一個(gè)個(gè)年輕的自己。

????因此,研究生院并未使學(xué)生們?yōu)楦咝?nèi)外的工作機(jī)會做好準(zhǔn)備。

????更糟糕的是,研究生院的教授們不僅沒能幫助學(xué)生們在畢業(yè)時(shí)做好爭奪就業(yè)機(jī)會的準(zhǔn)備。事實(shí)上,他們告訴學(xué)生們不要重視這些工作,在極端情況下,甚至誘導(dǎo)他們不要去想這些工作。

????研究生院教導(dǎo)學(xué)生們不尊重工作,事實(shí)上是在讓他們變得不快樂——這是壞的教育最糟糕的情況。

????這些問題均源自于一種高校文化——鼓勵(lì)研究,將教學(xué)視為一種必要的附帶品。

????美國內(nèi)戰(zhàn)結(jié)束數(shù)十年后,研究型大學(xué)開始在美國出現(xiàn),一直以來,他們的辯護(hù)者不遺余力地支持將博士學(xué)位作為一種研究型學(xué)位,對于那些培養(yǎng)學(xué)生走出校園成為教師的研究生教育,他們卻極力貶低。

????密歇根大學(xué)研究生學(xué)院的院長阿爾弗雷德?H?勞埃德在1924年寫道:“如果有十個(gè)人在攻讀博士學(xué)位,就會有數(shù)百人成為碩士生?!睂τ趧诎5聛碚f,教育碩士研究生是“膚淺的”。

????多年來,研究型高校文化一直在排斥大多數(shù)研究生最終要做的工作。在美國高等教育發(fā)展時(shí)期,這種態(tài)度可能會被掩蓋,因?yàn)閷W(xué)術(shù)性工作和其他類型工作的來源更加豐富。

????但在如今經(jīng)濟(jì)低迷的情況下,高校需要明白,研究生院不僅要產(chǎn)生研究成果,還要培養(yǎng)出符合不同類型工作要求,并且對工作感興趣的畢業(yè)生。

????學(xué)術(shù)界是保守的(這意味著,學(xué)術(shù)界在面對變革時(shí)行動(dòng)遲緩),理應(yīng)如此。我們不希望高等教育受到最新潮流的沖擊。但研究生教育甚至在學(xué)術(shù)界都被視為保守,被形容為僵化。

????亞瑟?萊文的試驗(yàn)項(xiàng)目大多為在線課程,在批評者看來,這或許不夠完善,但至少他正在進(jìn)行嘗試。大型研究生院是時(shí)候進(jìn)行一些新的嘗試了。我并不是說研究生院應(yīng)該變成在線模式——它需要更小的規(guī)模。研究生院必須明白,研究生也需要擁有職業(yè)生涯,并對這種實(shí)際需求做出響應(yīng)。

????最近,研究生教育領(lǐng)域也在朝變革的方向發(fā)展。人文科學(xué)專業(yè)的某些學(xué)科組織和個(gè)人機(jī)構(gòu),正在嘗試幫助研究生更快完成學(xué)業(yè),了解他們將要面對的職業(yè)選擇。

????但由于學(xué)術(shù)價(jià)值系統(tǒng)的存在,未來的工作并不容易:教授和未來的教授們要接受研究型文化標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的評判。對于教學(xué)人員和研究生們來說,研究才是至高無上的任務(wù)。這也使研究型文化多年來在與其他高等教育理念的競爭中占據(jù)了優(yōu)勢。這意味著,即便在教學(xué)最為重要的小型院校,研究也是決定地位、排名和成績的關(guān)鍵。

????高校不需要放棄他們的研究使命,只要他們能夠牢記,研究生教育與其他教育一樣,同樣需要優(yōu)質(zhì)的教學(xué)。只有如此,他們才有機(jī)會讓研究生教育重新走上正軌。

????優(yōu)質(zhì)的研究生教育將在最關(guān)鍵的地方發(fā)揮影響。研究生,這個(gè)高校內(nèi)最弱小的群體,也可以藉此改善他們的生活。(財(cái)富中文網(wǎng))

????本文作者萊納德?卡蘇托為福特漢姆大學(xué)英語專業(yè)教授。

????譯者:劉進(jìn)龍/汪皓

????審校:任文科

????Arthur Levine, the head of the Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation, has been a vituperative critic of teacher education programs for years. His recent announcement that he’s partnering with MIT to start a new teacher education graduate degree program has brought new attention to these teacher training programs – and to teacher training generally.

????Levine’s indictment of education school teaching has legs. The teaching of teachers is in a serious disarray. Requirements and standards for the master’s degree in education, the recognized certification credential for US public school teaching, vary wildly from university to university. And the effects of such variations ripple through the entire K-12 education system.

????There is no doubt that education schools have faced some special difficulties. The number of master’s degrees in education awarded in the US has more than doubled since 1990. This increase has brought more attention to the problems with these degrees.

????But these concerns should also draw our attention to a larger problem with the teaching in graduate schools in general.

????The problems with graduate schools of education are not new. A brief look at the history of the education school doctorate shows how far back they extend.

????The first PhD in education was awarded in 1893 by Columbia University’s Teachers College. Harvard University was the first to offer a new degree in 1920, called the EdD. The PhD in education was supposed to be a scholar’s degree and the EdD was supposed to be a practitioner’s credential.

????From the beginning, the two were hard to tell apart. The EdD programs tended to require research work — including a dissertation — similar to what was performed in PhD programs, but with fewer other requirements.

????By 1983, there were 167 schools in the US that were awarding both degrees. The EdD was typically looked down upon — but only by those who could tell the difference between the two. Lee S. Shulman, while serving as president of the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, not long ago called the EdD a “PhD-lite.”

????A 2007 initiative to reinvent the EdD found educators muttering the same complaints they always had about the close resemblance between the EdD and the education PhD. We need, said one, “to invest the time to really look seriously at the distinction between them.” To the extent that they could be told apart, the only real difference was that the EdD was considered to be less substantial and less valuable.

????Such criticism slowly dragged the EdD down. In 2012, Harvard discontinued the degree, in this case following the lead of other institutions that had given it up first. The EdD now straggles along at a small number of universities.

????The story of the EdD is an embarrassing tale of bad planning, but at bottom, it’s about poor teaching. But such badly planned and executed graduate teaching is by no means restricted to ed schools.

????Poor teaching afflicts graduate programs in the liberal arts generally — and its results challenge the meaning of the whole enterprise of higher education.

????My new book, The Graduate School Mess, describes how the effects of bad teaching extend far beyond graduate programs.

????When I say bad teaching, I don’t mean just what happens in the classroom. Graduate students learn in labs, through their own undergraduate teaching and on their own. But they need guidance. They receive it only through graduate programs that are rationally designed to meet graduate students’ needs and help move them toward their goals.

????Graduate school in the US isn’t meeting the needs of its students right now. And here’s why:

????The time taken to do the PhD degree has bloated in all fields. (It approaches nine years in the humanities.) The standard graduate curriculum is designed to prepare graduate students for jobs at research universities, where teaching loads are low and the expectation is that professors will focus on publication ahead of teaching.

????The fact is most doctoral students won’t ever get those fancy jobs. The majority of American professorships are at colleges and universities with higher courseloads and an expectation that professors will commit themselves to teaching.

????But most graduate programs don’t adjust their teaching of graduate students to reflect this fact. Consequently, their education is preparing them for work that most of them won’t ever get.

????The results vary by field, but most PhDs who labor for years in the hope of a tenure-track professorship have less than a 50% chance of getting one.

????Teaching-intensive jobs outnumber the research-centered ones. As a result, unsuccessful seekers of professorships populate a large, angry and embittered adjunct facultywhose low-wage labor has become necessary to the bottom line of many public universities.

????These problems, which connect to many others, are essentially a failure of teaching.

????Studies show that graduate school in the arts and sciences leaves students confused and bewildered about the value and purpose of what they are learning. They know how competitive the academic job market is, and they feel unprepared to succeed in it.

????They also feel unprepared for nonacademic alternatives, because graduate schools in the arts and sciences focus their curriculum on replication: professors at research universities essentially prepare students to become mini-me’s, younger versions of themselves.

????Thus, graduate schools fail to prepare students for the full range of jobs that are open to them, both inside and outside of the university.

????Even worse, it’s not just that graduate school professors fail to prepare students for the jobs that they will actually compete for when they graduate. The reality is, they teach them not to value those jobs — and in extreme cases, not to even want them at all.

????When graduate schools teach students to disrespect the jobs that they can get, they are teaching students to be unhappy — and that’s the worst kind of bad teaching.

????These practices stem from a university culture that rewards research and treats teaching as a necessary sidecar.

????Ever since research universities sprouted in America in the decades following the Civil War, their proponents have lavished support on the PhD as a research degree and devalued the kind of graduate education that prepares students to go out and become teachers.

????“Where ten seek the doctorate,” wrote the Michigan graduate dean Alfred H. Lloyd in 1924, “hundreds would be masters.” For Lloyd, educating master’s degree students was “superficial.”

????For generations, the culture of research has dismissed the work that most graduate students actually wind up doing. This attitude could be camouflaged during times of growth of American higher education, when academic jobs and other resources were more plentiful.

????Now, at a time of financial constraint, universities need to understand that graduate school is not just about producing research. It’s also about graduating students who are not only qualified for different kinds of jobs but also interested in doing them.

????Academia is conservative (with a small “c,” meaning that it’s slow to change), and rightly so. We wouldn’t want higher education to be buffeted about by the latest fads. But graduate education is conservative even by academic standards — which qualifies it as fossilized.

????Arthur Levine’s experimental, mostly online program looks sketchy to his critics, but at least he’s trying something. It’s time that the larger graduate school enterprise tried to do something new as well. I don’t mean that graduate school should shift to an online model – it needs to be more small-scale than that. Graduate school must respond to the actual needs that graduate students have as people with professional lives.

????There have lately been movements toward reform within the graduate school establishment. Some disciplinary organizations and individual institutions in the arts and sciences are trying to help graduate students finish sooner and understand the range of career options before them.

????But the job ahead is difficult because of the academic value system: professors and would-be professors everywhere are judged according to the standards of research culture. For faculty, and graduate students in their turn, research is the coin of the realm. That has given an advantage to research culture over the years against competing views of higher education. That means that even at small colleges where teaching matters most, research determines status, rank and merit.

????Universities need not abandon their research mission if they keep in mind that graduate education, like all education, requires thoughtful teaching. If they do so, they have a chance of bringing their houses back into order.

????Good graduate teaching will help make a difference where it matters most. It will improve the lives of universities’ least powerful citizens: their graduate students.

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